Political opportunity

Political Opportunity Theory explains how social movements emerge and succeed by focusing on three key components: insurgent consciousness (shared grievances), organizational strength, and political opportunities. Political opportunities include factors like increased political pluralism, declining repression, elite divisions, and heightened political enfranchisement. These opportunities are situational rather than structural, as they can shift over time and influence a movement's success or decline. The theory emphasizes that grievances and resources alone are insufficient; all three elements must align for a movement to thrive.

The theory is part of the structure-agency debate, where activists' actions are shaped by broader political contexts (structure). Political opportunities are often perceived rather than fixed, making them dynamic and context-dependent. Critics argue that the definitions of political opportunities can be too broad or vary widely based on historical context. Additionally, the theory has been criticized for overlooking movements rooted in cultural solidarity or those not directly opposing state rules.

In response to these criticisms, researchers like Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly developed the Dynamics of Contention program, which focuses on identifying mechanisms rather than relying on abstract structures. An example of this theory in practice is MoveOn.org, a progressive organization that mobilizes people around political issues through petitions and shared identity, illustrating both political opportunity and resource mobilization theories.